Financial Analysis of Hershey and Tootsie Roll Essay

Introduction Tootsie Roll and Hershey are two similar companies with a similar product offering, but they operate on entirely different scales. In an effort to determine the better investment of the two companies we will utilize multiple financial analysis ratios to gauge the health of the respective companies in terms of liquidity (the ability to pay short-term liabilities and respond to opportunities), solvency (the long-term viability of the company) and profitability (the efficiency at which the can turn it’s resources into profits). However, the snapshot picture of health that a single years worth of financial statements provide is not enough. Below we have offered a horizontal analysis of the respective companies to show the change in their health from 2012 to 2013 and analyzed the two companies against each other to show why we recommend Hershey as the better investment. Liquidity and Solvency Current Ratio The current ratio is defined as the current assets divided by the current liabilities for a given period. This ratio is important because it helps measure a company’s ability to pay their current liabilities with their current assets. This shows helps determine the liquidity of the companies and their ability to respond to market opportunities. Tootsie Roll has a current ratio of 3.25 in 2012 and 3.99 in 2013(an 18.5 percent increase). Hershey, on the other hand, has a current ratio of 1.44 and 1.77 (also an 18.5 percent increase) respectively. Both companies have increased year over year. As the current ratio shows, the Tootsie maintains a healthier ratio, but both have improved at the same rate. Debt to Asset Ratio This is a comparison of the debt-to-total asset ratio; also known as the leverage ratio, of both companies. This ratio is a good measure of solvency as it shows the percentage of assets that are financed with debt. Tootsie Roll has a ratio of 23 percent for both years while Hershey has a ratio of 78 percent and 70 percent respective to 2012 and 2013. Generally, this number should not be too high. While Hershey’s numbers are higher than Tootsie Roll’s, Hershey’s numbers have improved over the year. Furthermore, we believe Tootsie Roll may actually be under-leveraged since, â€Å"Having a healthy amount of debt can actually enhance a company’s profitability, in terms of the shareholders’ investment† (Harrison, Horngren, Thomas, 2013). As will be seen from the following ratios on profitability, Hershey is more efficiently turning their assets into profits, suggesting a better use of the healthy leverage shown in the debt to asset ratio. Profitability Gross Profit Rate A major factor for investors will always be the profitability of a company. One of the fundamental ratios to utilize when measuring the ability of a company to create a profit is the gross profit ratio, which is important for internal use as well as external use. For example: â€Å"Gross profit percentage is markup stated as a percentage of sales†. (Harrison Jr., Horngen, Tomas, 2013) This ratio will identify how much gross profit is being generated by every dollar the company generates though sales. Investors will always want to carefully keep track of the gross profit ratio in order to identify a downturn or an upturn in profits. Furthermore, The Hershey Company had a higher increase in gross profit ratio than Tootsie Roll Industries. The Hershey Company managed to increase the profit ratio from 43 percent in the year 2012 to 48 percent in the year 2013. This shows that The Hershey Company managed to increase their profit ratio by 11.5 percent from previous year. Tootsie Roll, on the other hand, also improved year over year, but only by 5.5 percent to reach a gross profit rate of 35 percent in 2013. It is important to note that the minimum increase in gross profit for every dollar of sales can make a huge difference in profits. For example: â€Å"an upturn by a small percentage can mean millions of dollars in additional profits†. (Harrison Jr., Horngen, Tomas, 2013) Even though the cost of goods sold consumes $0.52 of each sale, The Hershey Company managed to generate a  profit of $0.48 for each dollar of sales. Profit Margin Ratio The profit margin ratio demonstrates the ability of a company to increase the percentage of net income earned for every dollar of sales. For example: â€Å"this ratio shows the percentage of each sales dollar earned as net income†. (Harrison Jr., Horngen, Tomas, 2013) The Hershey Company was able to increase the profit margin ratio from 10 percent in 2012 to 11 percent in 2013. The increase in profit margin from the previous year 2012 shows that the performance of the company is increasing which means that revenue is increasing or expenses are decreasing. Furthermore, The Hershey Company is managing their performance efficiently and this is directly reflected in profit margin ratio. Return on Assets The return on assets (ROA) ratio helps measure how profitable a company is in relation to its total assets. In the case of Tootsie Roll, the company had an ROA of .06 in 2012 and an ROA of .07 in 2013. This is an increase of close to 16.7 percent year over year. Hershey, on the other hand had an ROA of .14 in 2012 and .16 in 2013. Hershey’s rising ROA is comparable at 14.3 percent. With change 16.7 percent and 14.3 percent being so similar, we favor Hershey’s ROA at the higher rate of .16 in 2013 as opposed to Tootsie Roll’s relatively meager .07 ROA. Payout Ratio The payout ratio will help make the final case of Hershey as the better investment of the comparable companies. The payout ratio measures the proportion of earnings that are paid to investors and shareholders. Because dividends are so important to the investment opportunity, this is an important ratio when looking at a company for investment income. In 2012 Tootsie Roll had a high payout ratio of 1.01 percent where Hershey’s was 52 percent in comparison. However, in 2013 Tootsie Roll’s payout ratio dropped a huge, 77 percent to 23 a percent ratio. Hershey’s payout ratio also dropped, but only 7.6 percent to 48 a percent ratio. Not only is 48 percent a better current number than Tootsie Roll’s .23, but as a long-term investment Hershey shows much more stability. Therefore Hershey continues to stand out as the stronger investment opportunity. Conclusion Determining the better of two companies to invest in is risky business and involves many factors outside of the numbers provided on financial statements. However, we have seen that by looking at the liquidity, solvency and profitability of the companies against each other an over time, we can gain valuable insights as to how well the respective companies are performing in the current environment and how well they are positioned to take advantage of rising opportunities and threats. Our analysis of Tootsie Roll and Hershey show that while Tootsie Roll has safer numbers in respect to liquidity and solvency, Hershey is clearly more efficiently using both it’s assets and liabilities to turn higher profits and pass that money on to it’s investors. Therefore, The Hershey Company is the clear choice to invest with. Bibliography Harrison, W. T. (2013). Financial Accounting, VitalSource for DeVry University, (9th ed.). Pearson Learning Solutions. Hershey. (2013). SEC Annual Report. SEC. Hershey: The Hershey Company. Tootsie Roll Industries. (2013). SEC Filing 10-K 2013. Chicago: Tootsie Roll.

How Far Was the Nuclear Arms Race a Threat to World Peace Essay

The nuclear arms race did threaten world peace because the weapons being created had the potential to destroy the world, to any nation this comprehension was threatening especially due to these weapons being in control of two countries that ideologically conflicted. Additionally, both superpowers paranoia for one another grew as the power of the weapons created grew and multiplied, this further threatened world peace since any minor movement made by either power could have been misinterpreted as an attack. However, it becomes clear from a post perspective that the arms race did in fact deter any form of violence between the USA and the USSR, this was due to their fear of mass destruction and that it was more a competition of ability between the two powers rather than a desire to attack their opponent. Although these facts do suggest the arms race wasn’t threatening, the fact that both nations had the capability to destroy the world can be seen as enough for the arms race to have been a threat to world peace. The Culture of secrecy that developed during the arms race threatened world peace because it fuelled the paranoia consuming each nation as to whether the other had military superiority. The fears concerning both powers led to assumptions being made on the other country’s progress, this is evident with the profound effect the Gaither report of 1957 had on the US. The report which was commissioned just after Sputnik heightened fear that the Soviet Union had military superiority because there was a missile gap between the two nations. The report led to the US creating a National Defence Education Act in an attempt to reinforce their already extensive military science and defence units, at the time the number of students studying at college doubled (mainly in engineering, maths and science). The impact of the report illustrates US fears of Russia gaining military superiority and if Eisenhower had thought the report to be true, it is questionable how much action might have been taken to prevent Russian military knowledge expanding. Therefore the culture of secrecy and the ignition of fear it created made the arms race a threat to world peace. Additionally, the concentration of power in the hands of both nations encouraged dangerous tactics to be considered, such as, the US doctrine of ‘massive retaliation’ in 1954. The US was confident at this point of their nuclear superiority over the world and believed that no nation would risk a war against their nuclear based force, it used the method of brinkmanship which involved going to the brink of nuclear war. Therefore the method was extremely provocative and if used would easily cause further hostility and conflict, especially since the USSR was adopting similar methods. An example of Brinkmanship can be seen in the Cuban Missile crisis 1962 which did arguably come to the brink of nuclear war, it’s an example of how dangerous the method is since if both powers were attempting to use it it wouldn’t have the desired effect of forcing the other country into submission. Consequently it seems the arms race in the 1950’s had led to over confidence for both nations to be considering such tactics which undoubtedly would have threatened world peace. However, the nuclear arms race did arguably deter both nations from participating in direct conflict due to the threat it would disrupt world peace. This concept of nuclear deterrence arose during the Korean War due to the threat direct conflict posed for not only Korea but the world. To prevent nuclear escalation procedures were followed such as Stalin not becoming directly involved in the war and Truman not using nuclear weapons against China, since this would lead to Russia having to support China and an indirect nuclear conflict taking place. When evaluating the Cuban Missile Crisis it is evident the effect different concepts and methods have on the outcome of nuclear threat, massive retaliation led to a quarantine in the Cuban crisis, whilst in the Korean war nuclear deterrence led to peaceful existence of both countries in opposition with no nuclear threat present. But this does show that different methods being interpreted played a key role in the arms race being a threat to world peace and that it wasn’t solely the nuclear arms being created. It is also clear during 1949-62 that the arms race was more of a competition between the two powers, hence ‘race’. Neither concluded any form of destruction or conflict as a result of the arms race, therefore it’s difficult to view the race as a threat. It is evident that it was simply a competition since it also involved technological and space advances, such as when Sputnik was launched in 1957, US failed in launching their own satellite Vanguard which was seen as a great failure and embarrassment for the US. The Soviet Union seemed to advance with rocket technology and in 1961 Yuri Gagarin in Vostok I became the first man in space, this indicates that particularly for Russia the arms race was not only about military advancements but overall technological advancements. It illustrates that the arms race was more about being the smartest and most powerful nation rather than bringing about the others destruction and thus being a threat to the world. It appears that the arms race wasn’t only about the destructive weaponry but about the paranoia and the ego of the two powers. Both nations were in fierce competition with the other to be the best super power and this seemed far more important to them than actually attacking the other nation, this is clear due to both countries agreeing to nuclear deterrence and limited war. Neither country wished to disrupt peace but simply lived in fear of the other country developing a more powerful weapon they could confront the other with, or succeeding them in space technology and thus being the better nation. Although any confrontation that had taken place rarely truly would have led to a nuclear war, there was always a slight threat that even with the most minute misinterpretation a missile could have been fired. This concern combined with the fact both nations did have the capability to destroy the world is enough to conclude that the nuclear arms race was a threat to world peace.

British Management Theory and Practice the Impact of Fayol

British management theory and practice: the impact of Fayol, Management Decision, Vol. 43 Iss: 10 pp. 1317 – 1334 This paper re-examines the impact of Fayol’s work on theory and practice of management in Britain, first, in the interwar period and second, in the post-war period of 1945 to the late 1960s. Lyndall Urwick, a respected British management thinker and writer described Fayol as â€Å"the most distinguished figure which Europe contributed to the management movement up to the end of the first half of the present century†(Smith I, Boyns T, 2005) in Urwick’s publishes and translated speeches. Urwick supported Fayol’s general principles of management ensuring an influence on post-war British management theories known as the neoclassical school during the 1950s. Fayol’s principles took place among theories within scientific management bundle which offered an intelligent inputs coupled to a genuine belief in industrial efficiency. Further research into British management practice during that era, Fayol’s influence proved problematic due to the emphasis of British management on pragmatism and narrow focus on control which allowed little, if any, accommodation for Fayol’s model. Twenty years or so after Second World War, Fayol’s impact, especially after Urwick’s intervention, was on management theory however not management practice. Since 1970, the focus of management thinking had turned away from the functions of management towards to understanding management and managing through an examination of what managers do. This article concludes whether Henri Fayol’s contribution is relevant today. This suggests that the history academics realized his work had significantly contributed to the study in management today, and Fayol’s ideas continued to be more influential in the realm of theory than practice in Britain.

Music therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Music therapy - Essay Example Musical therapy is a health profession. It is an interpersonal process where the therapist, who is trained personnel, develops a relationship with his clients using music and all of its facets i.e. physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and aesthetic aspects, enabling them to improve their health. They use musical experiences such as singing, songwriting, and listening, free improvisation, discussing to music and even moving to music to improve the healing process. The health issues in subject consist of cognitive functioning, emotional and affective development, behavioral and social skills, motor skills and, the quality of life. Music therapists can work in general hospitals, psychiatric facilities, schools, prisons, community centers, universities, and training institutes. Music therapist is in the hospital setup; work hand in hand with the physicians, psychologists, physical therapists and the occupational therapists. Individuals of all ages and those with specific requirements such as the stroke, sensory impairments, communication disorders, cancer, psychiatric disorders, those in palliative care and those in rehabilitation centers (recovering from substance abuse) benefit a lot form music. Apart from the entertainment they get from the music, they also get relaxed, improve their learning, build their self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise and get composed which improves the healing process. Music therapy has its history back in the biblical times when David played the harp to get rid of an evil spirit, which was in King Saul. In 400, B.C, the Greek father of medicine played music to his mental patients. Music therapy began after World War I and II, where musicians would travel to hospitals to play music to soldiers who suffered from war-related trauma. Aristotle himself described music as an energy that purifies the emotions. While music is an art with a strong connection with mathematics, music therapy is an art and a science. Introductio n Music therapy has a strong relationship with play, creativity, use of the whole personality and individual discovery of one self. In fact, Winnicott (2005, p.120) claims that It is in playing and only in playing, which the individual adult or child develops the ability to be creative and utilize the whole personality, and the individual discovers the self only in being creative. Â  This is all that makes music therapy different from other professions. The item one creates should have some value accompanied with it. There exist a relation between personal intelligence and creativity, and every session involves the client in some kind of music experience. The various sessions include improvising, re-creating, composing, and listening to music. In improvising, the client comes up with his/her own music and starts singing whatever arises now.

Safety and Health Issues in the Hospital Laboratory Essay

Safety and Health Issues in the Hospital Laboratory - Essay Example This is what occupational health and safety is all about; protecting the workers from the possible health and security hazards in the work place. Basically, occupational health and safety is an interdisciplinary field which is concerned with the protection of the safety, welfare and the health of the people in work or employment environment. Primarily, the workers are the one who are protected but as a secondary effect, the co-workers, family members, customers, suppliers, surrounding community and the general public that may be affected by the work environment have also to be protected. This paper seeks to highlight health and safety at the work place by considering a case study of a hospital laboratory. It will consider the possible health and safety hazards in the hospital laboratory and how they can easily be managed. Occupational health and safety is not a new idea because since 1950, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) jointly sought to define the concept. The paraphrased joint definition requires that occupational health aims at maintenance of the physical, social and mental wellbeing of all the workers in their workplace (Ladou, 2006). It should also prevent all the safety and health hazards caused by the working conditions thereby protecting the health and physical safety of the workers in a particular working environment. Finally, the practice of occupational safety health and safety also ensures the assignment and maintenance of workers in environment which is in tandem with both their psychological and physiological capacities and thereby adapting the worker to his job and vice versa. Having seen the three major concerns of the practice of occupational health and safety, we shall basically focus on the role of prevention of the safety and health hazards that are caused by the working conditions (Roughton, 2002). In this case, the work environment being considered is the hospital laboratory. 3.0 The Case Study The hospital laboratory is a very important part in the hospital system that helps in the diagnostic function of the system. The laboratory either confirms diagnosis or provides information that helps in the diagnostic process. In the laboratory, the tests that are carried out are aimed at establishing the cause of the observed disease symptoms. The test is often carried out on body fluids and/or wastes such as urine, faeces, blood, sputum, saliva, etc. All these fluids are very potent media for pathogens and other micro organisms that cause diseases in the human body. The test in the

Obama care or romney care.which care would you prefer and why (I Research Paper

Obama care or romney care.which care would you prefer and why (I prefer obama care) - Research Paper Example U.S. President Barack Obama offers the Obamacare as the health care for America while former Massachusetts Governor Romney offers the â€Å"Romneycare† healthcare program. It is very important that the healthcare program of the winning president favors the people. That it solves the long time problem of the state and benefits all the Americans. Many claim that Obamacare and Romneycare offer no difference. Though the two healthcare programs exhibit many similarities in their plan, they still hold key distinctions. These distinctions tend to show that Obamacare seems a lot more favorable to the American people. Healthcare programs concentrate on three main areas namely employer-provided insurance, Medicare for seniors and Medicaid for the poor. While both programs require individuals to purchase their own health insurance, they offer different plans on Medicare. Romney offers a â€Å"premium support† method of paying health insurance while Obama opposes it and plans to cut the health budget while maintaining the healthcare benefits. Obama plans to cut $716 billion from health budget by reducing reimbursement to health care providers and cutting overpayments to health insurance companies (Burd). In the long run, Obama’s healthcare program can actually improve the healthcare system of the U.S. and its whole economy. While providing quality Medicare to its people, a large amount of money will be saved from cutting the healthcare budget that goes into waste. This will also solve one of the country’s biggest financial problems. In addition, Romney claims that Obamacare is an inappropriate Healthcare program for the country and promises to replace it with his own Romneycare program. But then again, the Romneycare program includes many conditions that seem to be non-beneficial to its people. One of which is the Medicaid program which tends to provide health insurance subsidy for

Pathophysiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Pathophysiology - Essay Example In regard to presentation as per the specifications of DSM-5, bipolar disorder patients exhibit manic and depressive episodes. They experience high and low variations in behavior, energy and mood. In manic episodes, certain symptoms must be presented. They include restlessness, excitement, and lack sleep for days, racing ideas filled with new concepts of their life goals, full of thoughts and talk excessively. In depressive episodes, certain symptoms must be presented. They include low self-esteem, easily annoyed and bad-tempered and are mostly engaged in arguments and fights, lack of concentration, lack of achievement of objectives, depressed mood, fatigue, and insomnia (Peacock, 2000). In regard to presentation as per the specifications of DSM-5, panic disorder patients are expected to exhibit unexpected panic attacks as they are always suffering from immoderate worries which are uncontrollable. Moreover, patients suffering from this disease center their attention on financial issu es, absence of confidence, relationships, and hopeless future (Heimberg, Turk & Mennin, 2004). Neither substance abuse nor medical conditions are contributing factors to anxiety

Daddy by Sylvia Plath. How does the language in the poem reveal what Essay

Daddy by Sylvia Plath. How does the language in the poem reveal what you think the poem is all about What is your opinion of that main idea Why do you believe as you do - Essay Example Plath's father died when she was eight, and the poet herself stated that the poem is about a woman (presumably herself) who is plagued by an Electra complex regarding her father that she cannot entirely admit to. The Electra complex is the female equivalent of the Oedipus complex, and involves a girl wanting to make love to her own father. This theme of unrequited love and hatred is reflected within the language of the poem that starts with two seemingly enigmatic lines: "You do not do, you not do/ Any more, black shoe" (Plath, 1-2), and continues with the fact that she has had to wear this "shoe" for thirty years, The "shoe" in this case is apparently Plath's life which, as a reader today knows, she is about to end. The second stanza starts with two lines that are both shocking and yet ironic, as Plath states that "Daddy, I have had to kill you./ You died before I had time." (Plath, 6-7). Plath casts a decidedly modern context upon the age-old conflict between parents and children. In the modern age the father has died before his time and so Plath essentially has to "kill" him through the words of her poetry. The image of Germany and eventually of Nazism appears with the end of the third stanza and the inclusion of "ach, du", which translates to "ah, you". Much of the rest of the poem explores this "daddy as Nazi and Sylvia s Jew" context in a number of ways. She first imagines that her father looks at least a little like Hitler, "and you neat moustache, / and you Aryan eye, bright blue", and continues with the remarkable assertion of a kind of sexual obsession with the man. Thus Plath states: Every woman adores a Fascist, The boot in the face, the brute, Brute heart of a brute like you. According to Plath women are turned on in some manner by the kind of cruelty exhibited by this kind of man. Near to the middle of the poem she states that there is a normality to this vision of "daddy", so he has "ac left in your chin instead of your foot", showing that he looks like a normal human being rather than a cloven-hoofed devil. Plath's previous suicide attempt is linked to her Daddy, as well as the fact that she may have been raped. Her attempt to kill her self at twenty was, according to the poem, an attempt to "get back, back, back to you." The repetition of the word "back" shows how futile the attempt was but how it still is a constant matter within her mind. If Daddy, along with the other poems in the book "Ariel" can be seen as a kind of extended suicide note, then this central part of the poem suggests that part of the reason for her death may have been this longing to be with her father. Of course going backwards in time is possible, so Plath takes the next bets thing, "I thought even the bones would do". As the poem nears an end, Plath starts to compare her father to a vampire, stating that "if I've killed one man, I've killed to." This can be explained by the fact that a vampire, in order to be a vampire, must have once died. Then, if one kills the vampire, he has been killed twice. The last stanza of the poem takes the reader into a vampire novel or film in which the "villagers never liked you" and have put a "stake in you fat black heart". The final line of the poem, "daddy, daddy, you

Harmonization and Unification of Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Harmonization and Unification of Law - Essay Example Over the years UNCITRAL has developed a number of conventions and laws to deal with trade transactions and business law associated with international trade (UNCITRAL 2006). "Harmonization" and "unification" of law of international trade is the manner through which the law aiding international commerce is created and adopted.Commerce in many countries may be deficient or have inadequate governing laws that may impede international trade. The role of UNCITRAL is to recognize the existence of such problems in the various legal systems and methodically formulate laws to be supported and implemented by the different legal systems. The process of Harmonization includes modification of domestic laws to improve predictability in cross-border commercial transactions. Unification is the adoption by states of common legal practices with regards to certain aspects of cross-border commerce (Clift 1999). One of the issues that is ignored with implementing legal rules contained within the sphere of harmonization is that of continual change, innovation and revision of organizations and institutions in a competitive legal environment. Harmonization and unification of law may weaken the expansion of legal machinery instead of improving domestic legal systems. This can be as a result of two elements contained within the legal system. ... If the new law and existing laws are not complementary to each other, harmonization may not be achieved and might actually garble the existing legal system. When law is termed as a cognitive institution it implies that for effective implementation and to enable it to change public behaviour, the law must be completely understood and accepted by law makers, enforcers and customers including those associated with the legal system. When harmonized law is introduced in a country, although it creates a sweeping change, it also has the effect of isolating the law making process from economic and political development. As a result, it dissociates itself from the process of constant adaptation, improvement and innovation. When it comes to legal innovation it is important to have readily accessible information about the substance of legal rules and about their working in the context of a legal framework in a country. In certain countries laws are required to be context specific, and with a perfect construction of law for widespread implementation it can confound law makers and law enforcers in the receiving countries about how best to use them. As the example of colonization of developing countries illustrates, the imposition of external rules may result in domestic opposition to them. Even with perfectly formulated laws, the viability of developing effective legal systems that can effectively enforce laws to international settings is left open to question. And occasionally, cross-border transactions have seen rivalry between private international law and the harmonization of private law. (Hartkamp 2004 p.6) In Europe, with the emergence of the EU as a major economic power the

Service operation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Service operation management - Essay Example = 675 + 675 = $1,350 4. Modern inventory management approaches Two of the modern inventory management approaches are Just In Time (JIT) inventory management (Wikipedia, 2007) and Vendor Managed Inventory (Wikipedia, 2007). a. In JIT system, the inventory is reduced and hence the associated cost of keeping the inventory. The inventory is ordered at the re-order point, this saves warehouse space and cost and increases return on investment, quality and efficiency. A drawback of this approach is that re-order level is determined by historical demand which may not be the accurate forecasting measure. This might lead to inventory depletion and customer service issues. Another drawback is that the system becomes vulnerable to supply shocks; that is, a sudden increase in the price of inventory item. This may disturb the budgets. b. Vendor Managed Inventory is a model where the buyer provides certain information to the supplier who then takes responsibility to maintain an agreed level of inventory for the buyer. This model was successfully used for some time but it makes the buyer too dependent upon the supplier or availability of raw materials and inventory items. 5. a. H = hC = (0.1)(90-5) = $8.5 Q* = {(2)(S)(D) / H }1/2 = {(2)(25)(4,000)/8.5}1/2 = 153 units (approximately) Since, Q* Hence, the optimal order size in this case is 500 units. b. H = hC = (0.1)(90-6) = $8.4 Q* = {(2)(S)(D) / H }1/2 = {(2)(25)(4,000)/8.4}1/2 = 154 units (approximately) Since, Q*The inventory is ordered at the re-order point, this saves warehouse space and cost and increases return on investment, quality and efficiency. A drawback of this approach is that re-order level is determined by historical demand which may not be the accurate forecasting measure. This might lead to inventory depletion and customer service issues. Another drawback is that the system becomes vulnerable to supply shocks; that is, a sudden increase in the price of inventory item. This may disturb the budgets. b. Vendor Managed Inventory is a model where the buyer provides certain information to the supplier who then takes responsibility to maintain an agreed level of inventory for the buyer. This model was successfully used for some time but it makes the buyer too dependent upon the supplier or availability of raw materials and inventory items. Since, Q* Since, Q* < 1001, hence if we order 154 units, the discounts can not be taken. If 1001 units are ordered, the discount of $6 can be obtained per unit.

Education in India Essay Example for Free

Education in India Essay Takshasila was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. [2] Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Overall System Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central,state, and local. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government. The National Policy on Education (NPE) is a policy formulated by the Government of India to promote education amongst Indias people. The policy covers elementary education to colleges in both rural and urban India. The first NEP was promulgated in 1968 by the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the second by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1986. It emphasizes three aspects in relation to elementary education: * universal access and enrolment, * universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and * a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve * Revival of Sanskrit and other classical languages for contemporary use. Today education system in India can be divided into many stages. * Pre- Primary It consists of children of 3-5 years of age studying in nursery, lower kindergarten and upper kindergarten. At this stage student is given knowledge about school life and is taught to read and write some basic words. * Primary It includes the age group of children of 6-11 years studying in classes from first to fifth. * Middle It consists of children studying in classes from sixth to eighth. * Secondary it includes students studying in classes ninth and tenth. * Higher Secondary Includes students studying in eleventh and twelfth classes. * Undergraduate Here, a student goes through higher education, which is completed in college. This course may vary according to the subject pursued by the student. For medical student this stage is of four and a half years plus one year of compulsory internship, while a simple graduate degree can be attained in three years. * Postgraduate After completing graduation a student may opt for post graduation to further add to his qualifications. 10+2+3 pattern [. * The central and most state boards uniformly follows the 10+2+3 pattern of education. [11]:3 In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges),[11]:44 and then 3 years of college education for bachelors degree. [12] Distant Education * National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi is one of the mega open universities in the world and caters to around 1 million students around the world. Vocational Education. Vocational Education at Certificate level are offered by 1500 vocational institutions in the country in the areas of agriculture, business, commerce, health and para-medical, home science and humanities in addition to engineering trades. Primary Education in India The World Education Forum, held in 2000 set an ambitious goal: universal primary education by the year 2015. Schooling all children until they reach young adulthood is recognized as important because it leads to many substantial positive effects: better family health, lower birth rate, higher productivity, higher earnings, and improved economics of the country as a whole. Globally, however, more than 115 million children of primary school age do not attend school. The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen years, referred to as elementary education in India. [14] The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. Further, education has been made free[14] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. [18] Current status of primary education in IndiaAbout 20% of Indian children between the ages of six and 14 are not enrolled in school. Even among enrolled children, attendance rates are low and 26% of pupils enrolled in primary school drop out before Grade 5. The situation is worse in certain sectors of the population Despite a vibrant emerging economy and a string of excellent colleges that produce high caliber professionals, India has not made the grade yet on primary education. Hurdles in primary education (double it as general problems as well) Shortage of resources and lack of political will. High pupil to teacher ratios,(shortage of teachers –one teacher schools) Shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. (toilet for girls etc. ) The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education of 2009 recommended longer preparation for teachers, but the B. Ed curriculum structure continued to be for a single year. There is also a lack of enough skilled trainers and preparation to develop skills, abilities and attitudes to teach students. Poverty and illiteracy of the parent Gender Issues(girls cannot study). Social Issues like caste system (some castes are not allowed) Several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. (primary education) The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system. [19] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states. [19] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3. 5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes. [19] . [19] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. [19] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality HERE first Write to improve all the above negative issues. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)/Right to Education (RTE). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All Movement) is a programme by the Government of India aimed at the universalization of elementary education in a time bound manner, as mandated by the 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free education to children aged 6–14 (estimated to be 205 million in number in 2001) a fundamental right. The programme was pioneered by Atal Bihari Vajpayee. SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1. 1 million habitations. In FY 2009-10,60% of SSA funds came from GOI. This has now been revised to 65%. The programme is looking to open new schools in those habitations without schooling facilities and to strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants. SSA is now the primary vehicle for implementing the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE). National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), is a focused intervention of Government of India, to reach the â€Å"Hardest to Reach† girls, especially those not in school. Launched in July 2003, it is an important component of SSA, which provides additional support for enhancing girl’s education over and above the investments for girl’s education through normal SSA interventions. The programme provides for development of a â€Å"model school† in every cluster with more intense community mobilization and supervision of girls enrolment in schools. Gender sensitization of teachers, development of gender-sensitive learning materials, and provision of need-based incentives like escorts, stationery, workbooks and uniforms are some of the endeavors under the programme. The future of primary education in India The importance of universal primary education has now been widely recognized by everyone involved. Policies and pledges are easy to make but implementation can be difficult and goals hard to achieve, especially in a vast and populous country such as India. International agencies, the government of India, and the numerous NGOs will have to work together with will, wisdom and tremendous energy to make their desire for universal primary education by 2015 a reality in India. Secondary education. For several decades, it has been argued in the literature that secondary education needs to be expanded both as a response to increased social demand and as a feeder cadre for higher education, giving little emphasis to its other important functions. It is also argued that investment in secondary education yields considerable social and economic returns, making it crucial for national development India is following a service-led growth model and striving hard to survive the global competition, in these conditions it is being increasingly recognised that secondary education, is the most critical segment of the education chain. Apart from the bottom-up pressure (i. e. arising from the growth of primary schooling) and the top-down pressure (as the source of potential intakes for higher education) for its expansion, there is a need to pay greater attention to secondary education as it caters to the needs of the most important segment of the population – adolescents and youth, the source of the future human and social capital of a nation. Secondary education covers children 14–18 which covers 88. 5 million children according to the Census, 2001. Features * A significant feature of Indias secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. * Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. * Another feature of Indias secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing. [27] * A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[28] Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education. [7] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[29] The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 for the employees of the central government of India to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employees family has been transferred. [7] Policy Initiatives in secondary education After independence, the first step towards improving policy planning for development of secondary education was the setting up of the Secondary Education Commission in 1952(also known as the Mudaliar Commission). The primary objective of the Commission was todiagnose the growth pattern and suggest measures for reorganisation and improvement ofsecondary education. The commission’s major recommendation was to develop a 3-yearnational system of secondary education after 8-years of elementary education (8 + 3 systemof school education) to make it a complete stage. The commission also recommended thereconstruction of the syllabus to provide a wider and more balanced course and adopt mother tongue as the medium of instruction (Kabir, 1955). Nearly one-and-a-half decades after the Mudaliar Commission, the Kothari Commission(1964-66), while articulating goals and objectives at all stages of education in the context ofnational development priorities, recommended for a 4-year secondary education system anddiscontinuing the practice of ‘streaming’ up to Grade X. It may be noted that, ten years afterthe commission submitted its report; education was placed in the Concurrent List States and the centre responsible for its development. This changed the policy context fordevelopment of secondary education. The National Policy on Education (NPE), of 1986 subsequently reiterated the views of the Education Commission to implement a 4-year secondary education system across the states and UTs. 23 The NPE emphasised improving equitable access to secondary education and the enrolment of girls, SCs and STs, particularly in science, commerce and vocational streams (Para 5. 13 of the NPE, 1986). The NPE and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 while recognising secondary education as a critical instrument for social change, called for its planned expansion. The NPE, (as modified in 1992) specifically laid emphasis again on increasing access to secondary education with particular focus on participation of girls, SCs and STs; increased autonomy of Boards ofSecondary Education to enhance their ability to improve quality; introduction of ICT inschool curriculum for coping with globalisation; renewed emphasis on work ethos and valuesof a humane and  composite culture in the curricula; And vocationalisation through specialisedinstitutions or through the refashioning of secondary education to meet the manpower requirements of the growing Indian economy Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) This scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The implementation of the scheme started from 2009-10. It is envisaged to achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52. 26% in 2005-06 at secondary stage within 5 years of implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation. The other objectives include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i. e. , by the end of 12th Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020. Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive education of the disabled children in classes IX-XIITo enable all students with disabilities, after completing eight years of elementary schooling, to pursue further four years of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling environment. Higher education Indias higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. [32] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. [33] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission. [34] In India, education system is reformed. In future, India will be one of the largest education hub. After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students may enroll in general degree programmes such as bachelors degreein arts, commerce or science, or professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or medicine. [31] As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 institutes which are of national importance. [33] Other institutions include 16,000 colleges, including 1,800 exclusive womens colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. [33] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. [35] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes. [36] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system. [36] Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate education in engineering. [36] The IITs enroll about 10,000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India. [37] Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Indian Institute of Science IISC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. Government programs on Education Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan[. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan is a centrally sponsored flagship umbrella scheme aimed at providing strategic funding to State higher and technical institutions. States will develop comprehensive state higher education plans that utilize an interconnected strategy to address issues of expansion, equity and excellence together. Central funding will be linked to academic, administrative and financial reforms of state higher education. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan proposes to put a ceiling of maximum number of colleges to be affiliated to any university at two hundred . [17] Higher Education and Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) With the objectives and proposals of the Plan as the basis, the report mentions that the private sector has played an instrumental role in the growth of the sector. Private institutions now account for 64% of the total number of institutions and 59% of enrollment in the country, as compared to 43% and 33%, respectively, a decade ago. The Government has also given the required thrust to the sector in its Five Year Plans. During the Eleventh Plan period (2007–2012), India achieved a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 17. 9%, up from 12. 3% at the beginning of the Plan period. India’s higher education system faces challenges on three fronts: Expansion:India’s GER of16% was much below the world average of 27%, as well as that of other emerging countries such as China (26%) and Brazil (36%) in 2010. Excellence:Faculty shortage there is 40% and 35% shortage of faculty in state and central universities, respectively. Accredited institutions 62% of universities and 90% of colleges were average or below average in 2010, on the basis of their NAAC accreditation. Low citation impact India’s relative citation impact is half the world average. Equity There is wide disparity in the GER of higher education across states and the Gross Attendance Ratio (GAR) in urban and rural areas, and gender- and community-wise Drawbacks of Indian Higher Education System * Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. * Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education shops, which are run by big businessmen politicians. * Many private colleges and universities do not fulfill the required criterion by the Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc. ) and take students for a ride. * Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities. [39] Road Ahead in Higher Education * Merit-based student financing: This should ensure admissions to meritorious students independent of financial background * Internationalization of education: This would entail aligning different aspects of education (curriculum, faculty, etc) to international standards * Enabling a research environment. This would involve creating adequate means of research funding and practical application of research * High quality faculty: The need of the hour is to create a conducive environment and provide incentives to attract and retain high quality faculty. * Improved technology for education delivery: Leveraging technology for enhancing the teaching-learning experience will ensure better outcomes * Employability: Making education-industry relevant and practical would be the right way to ensure a highly employable talent pool India’s higher education system can be expected to be better aligned to industry and global practices, and be more transparent and inclusive by the end of Twelfth Plan period, provided the Government is able to create an enabling regulatory environment and put in place robust implementation, monitoring and quality assurance mechanisms. * Legislative support. One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. * Private Sector-The private sector can be expected to play an instrumental role in the achievement of these outcomes through the creation of knowledge networks, research and innovation centers, corporate-backed institutions, and support for faculty development. Saakshar Bharat (Saakshar Bharat)/Adult Education. The Prime Minister of India launched Saakshar Bharat, a centrally sponsored scheme of Department of School Education and Literacy (DSEL), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India (GOI), on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. It aims to further promote and strengthen Adult Education, specially of women, Education Governing Bodies he Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): This is the main governing body of education system in India. It has control over the central education system. It conducts exam and looks after the functioning of schools accredited to central education system. * The Council of Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE): It is a board for Anglo Indian Studies in India. It conducts two examinations Indian Certificate of Secondary Education and Indian School Certificate. Indian Certificate of secondary education is a k-10 examination for those Indian students who have just completed class 10th and Indian school certificate is a k-12 public examination conducted for those studying in class 12th. * The State Government Boards: Apart from CBSE and CISCE each state in India has its own State Board of education, which looks after the educational issues. * The National Open School: It is also known as National Institute of Open Schooling. It was established by the Government Of India in 1989. It is a ray of hope for those students who cannot attend formal schools. * The International School: It controls the schools, which are accredited to curriculum of international standard. * Classification of Colleges. Colleges in India come under four different categories. This categorization is done on the basis of the kind of courses offered by them (professional/ vocational) / their ownership status( Private/ Government) or their relationship with the university (affiliated/university owned). University Colleges These colleges are managed by the university itself and situated mostly in the university campus. Government Colleges The government colleges are few, only about 15-20 percent of the total. They are managed by state governments. As in case of other colleges, the university to which these colleges are affiliated, conducts their examination, lays down the courses of studies and awards the degrees. Professional Colleges The professional colleges are mostly in the disciplines of medicine, engineering and management. There are few for other disciplines too. They are sponsored and managed either by the government or by private initiative. Privately Managed colleges About 70% of the colleges are founded by the privately owned trusts or societies. But these institutes are also governed by the rules and regulations of the university they are affiliated to. Though initially started up as a private initiative, the state government also funds these college Private Education What is it? What is the need for it ? What are benefits? What are problems with it? What can be done to streamline it? India saw the largest increase in literacy rate in the decadeof 1991–2001 — from about 52 per cent to 65 per cent. From 2001 to 2011, the literacy rate increased by 9 per cent to 74 per cent (Planning Commission 2011). The 13 per cent increase in 1991–2001 has been the largest for any 10-year period in the history of the country. Private investments and the emergence of budget private schools was the main cause for this.! As parents began to earn more in the post-reform era, they began to invest in their children. As better employment opportunities arose, the value of education became more apparent to parents. This increased demand for education was met by a rapid expansion of budget private schools The biggest success story of literacy in India has been written withprivate initiative — parents’ willingness to pay and the edupreneur innovation of an aff ordable school. In post-liberalisation India, the importance of the private sector in economic growth is well understood and appreciated. For economic growth, the state’s role is primarily to enable the private sector as a facilitator, prudent regulator, impartial enforcer of contracts, and at times as a financier Incentives for efficiency are also weak. Government employees have little incentive to minimise costs, fi nd and correct mistakes, innovate, and acquire necessary information about resources and consumer demand. The high teacher absenteeism in government schools is just one indicator of poor incentives. . High prices in terms of tuition fees, donations andlong queues for admissions are signs of the shortage of quality educational institutions. The same paucity of supply existed for consumer goods before the 1991 liberalisation. The license-permit-quota raj still exists in our education system. Schools and colleges need to be made accountable not to education bureaucrats (licensors) but to parents and students (customers). The government policy should be to increase choice and competition in education as it has been done in many areas of the economy — facilitate, not control. The core competency of the private and public sectors should be combined. The private sector should be allowed to produce education — manage schools and colleges — and provide it to all who can aff ord to pay. For those who cannot aff ord to pay, the government should finance their education through scholarships, education vouchers and loans. Instead of focusing on the inputs to education, the government ensures the output — meaningful, high quality learning. This approach combines the efficiency and accountability of the private sector with the equity and independent supervision of the public sector. . Governments and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) should evaluate schools and colleges and publish the results so that parents can make informed decisions. One key goal of global reformers is to increase the accountability of schools towards parents — restructure the system so that schools are at least as much accountable to parents as they are to the education offi cials. There are many ways to achieve this goal: put parents on school boards or district education councils, give powers to parent-teacher associations, create something like our village education committees . One new idea in this bucket is that of school vouchers. Several countries have undertaken pilot projects. The voucher is a tool to change the way governments finance education, particularly of the poor. It is a coupon off ered by the government that covers full or partial cost of education at the school of the student’s choice. The schools collect vouchers from the students, deposit them in their bank accounts and the banks then credit the school accounts with equivalent money while debiting the account of the government. Section 12 of the RTE requires private unaided schools to reserve 25 per cent seats in the entry-level class (nursery or Class I) for socially disadvantaged and economically weaker sections. The government would provide private schools with reimbursements equal to their fees or the per student cost in government schools, whichever is lower. EDUCATION REFORM Just as in economic reforms, the list of education reform ideas could be quite long. This paper suggests that two principles should be the focus of reforms in the education ecosystem — effi cient use of public funds and the promotion of equity and quality through choice and competition. Achieve Efficient Use of Public Funds. (a) Fund students, not schools (school vouchers, charter schools, conditional cash transfers); (b) Convert state funding to per student basis and link it to performance; (d) Give poorly performing state schools to private parties on learning outcome contracts; (e) Hire teachers at the school level, not at the state level; Promote Equity and Quality through Choice and Competition: (i) Apply the same standards to both private as well as government schools; (ii) Annual independent learning outcome assessment across all schools; (iii) Decentralise and depoliticise syllabi and textbooks; (iv) Open Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and state board exams to all students, not only for students who study in CBSE or state board affiliated schools.

The Protestant Reformation Essay Example for Free

The Protestant Reformation Essay The protestant reformation was primarily an economic event because the entire idea of reforming the church started with the validity of the sale of indulgences. Indulgences were purely for economic gain when it came to the catholic church. Because of this sale of indulgences protestants and other anti-pope figures such as Savonarola, Hus, Wycliffe, and Luther, began speaking out of the corruptions and abuses of the church. It it was for the sale of indulgences (purely economic) there would be no reason for the reformation. The sale of indulgances went on for a long while. They were peddled everywhere. They were sold for several reasons, such as funding crusades, pope pocket money, feed the humanistic tasts of the pope. The people recieved salvation, were excused from all sin and future sin and guaranteed a seat in heaven. Basically a form of religious taxation, the church began raking in enormous amounts of money. The Catholic heirarchy alone owned 75% of all the money in France, and 50% of the wealth in Germany. Besides the sale of indulgances clergymen began selling titles, positions, offices, etc. to rake in even more money. The most famous peddler of indulgances was Archbishop Tetzel, who traveled from town to town, especially throughout Germany, (Wittenburg)T hough by this time the special sale of indulgances had gone under way. This indulgance gave you complete absolution from all sins, and treatment for future sins. That would definetly guarantee you a spot in heaven. The money from the sale of these indulgances was going to pay for the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica. He gained the attention of Martin Luther, the founder of the protestant revolution, and he attacked Tetzel, and challenged the sale of indulgances. Luther was angered at this. He posted up his 95 theses at Wittenberg Castle, in which he denounced the selling of indulgences. Part of his anger was that German money was going to Rome. Thanks to the printing press, the 95 theses were printed all over Germany. In Address to the Christian Nobility, he said that secular government had the right to reform the church. Now Luther wasnt stupid. To a degree he sucked up to the nobles because he knew that if the nobles went with him, that would mean that his ideas, and later his reformation would be successful, because it had support from the the people with power. In On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther attacked the sacraments. Finally  in Liberty of a Christian Man, he hit it: salvation by faith alone. In response Pope Leo X issued a Bull (papal decree, not the other kind of bull) and demanded that Luther recant. Luther took the Bull, went outside and publicly burned it, he no longer accepted papal authority, and the pope excommunicated him. In 1521 he went before the Diet of Worms, when asked by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who said: Do you or do you not repudiate your books and the errors that contain? Luther responded, Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other my conscious is captive to the Word of God; I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. God help me, Amen. Martin Luther and his beliefs and followers were who started the protestant reformation. So without these economic factors the Protestant reformation would never have had reason to begin, therefore the reformation was primarily economic.

The Changing Direction Of Hip Hop Music Essay

The Changing Direction Of Hip Hop Music Essay Popular culture abounds in gender stereotypes. In the mass media, women have often been trivialized, marginalized and presented as inferior to men. Nearly always media depictions of women have relied on the opposition of good vs. bad. Taking into consideration popular music, it has been argued that the naÃÆ' ¯ve portrayal of women that prevailed decades ago has now given way to greater diversity, more complexity, and dramatically mixed messages about the individual female persona and womens roles in society. Despite this, it is still very unlikely for women to be presented as independent, intelligent, or superior to men. Moreover, the sexism is more prevalent and more extreme in some types of media or music genres than in others. One of the most popular hip hop genres, rap music, seems to be expanding the bar of its popularity by presenting extremely misogynistic portrayal of women. In this chapter I will focus on the reasons why this troubling trend have been closely related to h ip hop and what response it have received from the media and various social and political organizations. As indicated in the first and the second chapter many instances of rap songs present a myriad of violent and misogynistic messages. As long as hip hop music grows in popularity its lyrical content can no longer be ignored. Many critics have recently taken a critical look at hip hop phenomenon and the messages rap music conveys. Some, as bell hooks, would argue that rap music can be considered as a backlash on feminism and an attempt to reinforce male supremacy. Others would claim that this music serves to present men superiority over women as a natural and normal hierarchy. According to Patricia Hill Collins, rap can be perceived as one of the controlling images and used as a tool to subordinate black women. It is also argued that raps misogynistic lyrics may serve to justify violent behavior toward black women. Nowadays hip hop is a phenomenon which is spread worldwide. It is produced by giant production companies for mass distribution and consumption targeted to youth. Messages and images presented in this type of music catch attention of all racial groups. That is why the pursuit to impose superiority over black women may be extended to women in general. Images perpetuated in rap music contribute to gendered socialization and may be responsible for reinforcing gender inequality. Glen Ford, the executive editor of the Black Agenda Report electronic journal, claims that the industry executives and producers in order to take the full advantage of the popularity of hip hop and increase sales encourage artists to use provocative, explicit lyrics. Aspiring rappers are being used as raw material for the final product that sells. The whole marketing strategy is usually tailored long before the given rapper signs the contract. The artists image and behavior is adjusted to the current market demands. The rappers persona and the song seem to be just a final touch to the whole marketing process. On the other hand, those artists who do not comply with such a controversial strategy are being marginalized. As a result, rappers often abandon political and social messages and focus on money and sexual exploitative motifs, in response to corporate control. The issue of the music industry being a responsible party for setting disturbing trends in contemporary hip hop is well documented in Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes by Byron Hurt. An avid hip hop fan and director of this well acclaimed documentary challenges the big record labels to take responsibility for the destructive sexist images perpetuated in rap hits. The movie consists of numerous revealing discussions with aspiring as well as successful male rappers and hip hop moguls. During one interview, the director asks an aspiring rapper why he would rather turn to violent and misogynistic messages in his songs than political or social issues. The rapper answers that they the industry do not want to hear nor accept that: They usually dont give us deals when we speak righteously. To support this statement, a former president of pioneering hip hop recording company Def Jam Records Carmen Ashhurst, suggests that the emergence of a controversial genre, gangsta rap, was preceded by buying out the minor independent labels which would focus on more ambitious issues in the produced rap songs. Ashhurst states: At the time that we were able to get a bigger place in the record stores, and a bigger presence because of this major marketing capacity, the music became less and less conscious. Nowadays a few entertainment corporations in liaison with corporate dominated radio have gained a total control of the market. Independent labels have little share in the existing market and the most successful ones usually serve as subcontractors to the major labels. They also depend on bigger companies in terms of record distribution and business survival. Tricia Rose, in one of the interviews, claims that young people nowadays are under enormous marketing pressure. Instead of finding the way how to express what they really feel, they are being encouraged how to see their creativity through the marketing logic and how to sell it. They are forced to fit their products into existing marketing demands. Moreover, she claims that in case of black youth this is even more complicated as the corporate spaces for their expression are narrower. The diversity of their representation in music is limited. The industry dictates what can be considered as being real black. This statement seems to be true as in case of white artists it is easy to find them in every category of music, whereas black artists are nearly always associated only with hip hop genres as soul, RB, or rap. Moreover, as Rose claims, white artists are able to perform their individual self, while black artist manifest their blackness in the first place. Such a limited access to avai lable ways of presenting their black identity has led to perpetuation of negative stereotypes that haunt black community. Through the marketing perspective, rap has turned out to be a success but its artistic value has diminished. Yet, in case of sexism hip hop cannot be exclusively held responsible, as this problem pertains not only to the black society. But it is important to note that exploitation of women has become almost a requirement in order to establish rappers identity of a successful, respectable black male artist. Black female rappers in order to fit into the creative spaces available to them are forced to silently agree upon such terms. This is particularly troubling for black females who have been struggling for a long time to refute the image sexualized and exploited by white patriarchal supremacist society. Tricia Rose claims that the rappers cannot be blamed for the oppression of their female counterparts. They only act as the middle men and the prominent music executives are to be blamed for making profits on the negative representation of black society, and predominantly its female part. As stated before, what makes hip hop so appealing is not only the music and beats but mainly its powerful lyrics. According to publicist and political activist, Kevin Powell, the most salient point of the record companies marketing strategy is to make radio stations play the song nationwide over and over again. He notes that many listeners of hip hop would not only buy the popular single or record heard on the radio but they will also grasp the subliminal message conveyed by the lyrics. Powell, by judging the popular male rap lyrics, concludes that the only way one can be a real black man is to act like a hard gangster, women and homosexual hating thug. Objectification of women, as noted in the first chapter, occurs in a great share of top rap hits. The hits that have reached the top charts and sold in millions of copies. This suggests that denigrating women is a successful marketing tool for music industry executives, but in fact the consumers contribute to the selling process. Deni grating portrayal of women together with vicissitudes of the life in the hood partly occur as a response to a supposed consumer demand for symbolic, stereotypical representation of the ghetto and its inhabitants. It is important to note that the fans of rap music are not only young blacks from the ghetto. Many of avid listeners are white youth, who may have little firsthand experience of living in disadvantaged areas. For them hip hop songs may serve as a source of information. One of the white hip hop fans, interviewed by Hurt, admitted that for a representative of upper middle-class white suburban area, rap serves as a means of experiencing completely different culture. The question arises whether rap music can be treated as a reliable basis for evaluation of black culture or those are the industry forces merely responsible for the content of the music. Watkins in his article on black nationalism claims that explicit and misogynistic rap lyrics have revived common beliefs about black social pathology and deviance. The interviewed white hip hop fan also confirmed that in his opinion rap music reinforces racial stereotypes held by many whites. As mentioned before, rap music initially developed out of the experiences of youth in disadvantaged black neighborhoods of the Bronx and aspired to be a real voice of the ghetto. Thus, theoretically speaking, the messages conveyed by rap songs should have mirrored the real life of Americas inner cities. Contemporary hip hop phenomenon is still marketed by the same strategy, as being a reflection of the urban life on the streets. Keith Negus in his article broadly presented how the music industry agents work on their productions to reflect the cultural phenomenon of hip hop. He states that one of the strategy to grasp the real street experience is that the music industry sends its agents into the streets, clubs and other public places of disadvantaged neighborhoods in order to gather information about the newest trends and prevailing issues. Gender relations and violence constitute one of the pervasive concerns of the ghetto context. The harsh conditions of the ghetto may put its residents in sharp mutual conflict and make them turn to unconventional, illegal sources of gaining self-esteem. As argued in the first chapter, economic success and violence are considered one of the ways to gain respect in the ghetto. One of the studies of disadvantaged African-American neighborhoods of the late sixties indicates how crucial it was for the black unpriviliged men to be perceived as superior to women, despite the fact that in some cases such behavior was far from reality. More recent research of Miller and White shows that also today degradation of women shapes gender relations of the inner cities. It is argued that such a way of conduct stems from the set of rules that regulate life in the ghetto. For young men in such neighborhoods, the street code praises sexual achievements, promiscuity, and the exploitation of women: Because of the implications sex has for their local social status and esteem, the young men are ready to be regaled with graphic tales of one anothers sexual exploits. . . . Status goes to the winner, and sex is prized as a testament not of love but of control over another human being. The goal of the sexual conquests is to make a fool of the young woman. . . .[The male] incurs sanctions [from his peers] for allowing a girl to rule him or gain positive reinforcement for keeping her in line. . . . In many cases the more the young man seems to exploit the young woman, the higher is his regard within the peer group. Due to the poor socioeconomic conditions African American men are said to be deprived of the traditional traces of dignity. The street code favors celebration of material success and life of a women-exploiting pimp. Concluding findings listed above, it may be argued that both neighborhood and the industry influences rap lyrical content. As the corporations have been usurping the black mass culture for decades, hip hop seems to be an another product line. The issues as objectification of women have become a troubling global trend. In order to change it, not only the misogynistic nature of hip hop music needs to be revised but also the mass expectation for the product reshaped. As the author of Pimps Up, Hos Down: Hip Hops Hold on Young Black Women, Tracy Sharpley-Whiting claims, nowadays hip hop is only more explicit form in articulating mens conflicted relations with women. The problem boils down to the question of the ideas about masculinity and the role which men have to perform in American culture. She claims that contemporary men and boys feel displaced, as they compete with alpha women and girls in every aspect of life in ways that their fathers and grandfathers did not. Concurrently, she notes that men are in conflict with American ideals concerning manhood and a patriarchal society. Supposedly the only area t hat men feel able to exert power and dominance is in the field of sexuality and violent strength. Physical and sexual degrading attitude towards women, presumably, aims to bring back the balance in the female dominated world. Sharpley-Whiting notes that as much as hip hop have become a rawer form of expression the customers tastes also coarsened. The multi-billion generating music industry caters for these tastes as many rap consumers find degrading women entertaining. Similar point of view is presented by a hip hop culture researcher, Darren Rhym, in his study on gangsta rap and misogyny. He shares the same idea that hatred toward women is triggered by men who struggle to empower themselves.   Gangsta rappers who are notorious for misogynistic and, supposedly, men empowering lyrics, use rap music to define themselves, their lifestyle and outlook on life in general. Gangsta rappers share self-centered views of their community and the world.  Ã‚  They search for the way how to assure themselves as men, same as white men when they become successful.   That is why rappers usually present themselves as being greatly misunderstood victims of the establishment and apply a me against the world approach. By doing so they can claim innocence and adopt power position which enables them to view black women as objects and reasons for their failures. Even though, as it has been stated before, misogyny toward black women is present in the code of the stree t, restructured content of rap music can be used as a powerful tool to rejuvenate gender relations in the ghettos. As it is rather a hard and long-term process to change the socioeconomic conditions under which hip hop is created, it seems to be easier for the media and various institutions to influence the music executives to promote more affirmative content of hip hop songs. Especially that, as Rhymes notes, the most successful rappers who acquired enormous wealth somewhat lose their ghetto credibility. Gangsta rappers commonly identify with the inner-city black community and the hardship of the urban life. However, once a rapper achieves a material success he is no longer a part of the world he raps about.  Frustrated rappers may then look for various topics that will keep them real and connected with the ghetto. The motif of degrading women commonly seen in many rap songs, may be used as a strategy to regain credibility or acceptance of the home community. Needless to say, thi s is a wrong and disturbing technique. There are other topics to rap about that rappers may choose and still remain genuine. They may use their from-rags-to-riches life experience and share it with their underachieving counterparts. Not only will they sound authentic serving as a role model but also inspire pursuit of better life and lifelong dreams among the inhabitants of the inner-cities. It can be noted recently that hip hop is facing an increasing backlash. Such an attitude towards rap in particular has been preceded by many infamous events. The 2005 Academy Award for best original song in a feature film went to Three 6 Mafias controversial Its Hard Out Here For a Pimp from the film Hustle and Flow. The song performed at the Oscars, provoked a strong criticism of hip hop for perpetuation of the exploitation of women. In 2001, white rapper Eminem was awarded a Grammy for his album, The Marshall Mathers LP. As examined in the first chapter, the lyrics in this album contained extreme hostile and misogynistic messages toward women and homosexuals. The award was greatly condemned by many womens social groups. The most shocking and turning point in the rap popularity was the release of infamous video Tip Drill, by a male rapper Nelly. It caused a major havoc when it was first aired in 2003 on the late night show BET Uncut The BET Uncut Show was a television program aired by Black Entertainment Television (BET) during the early 2000. The aim of the show was to promote cheap, overtly sexual and nearly pornographic rap music videos. The videos were made by well-known hip hop artists, as well as by lesser-known artists who would seek for broader recognition. Due to the nature of the shows content it was broadcasted at 3 in the morning. The content and imagery was strictly adult and this surely contributed to the popularity of the show. Despite its appeal the BET Uncut Show was considered by many viewers poor in taste. Many complained the show promoted depiction of women as sex objects. This came to a boil when Nelly released the most infamous video in BET Uncut history. The video, Tip Drill, presented a raunchy, half naked women who danced suggestively with other women and men and pretended to engage in a sexual intercourse. The most controversial part was the moment when Nelly slid his credit card down a womans buttocks. This video hit the height of controversy ever presented in hip hop. Nelly initially had been scheduled to appear during a charity event at Spelman female college in Atlanta, Georgia, to promote bone marrow awareness. When this video aired, he was confronted with a statement from student groups from predominantly black Spelman college that they could have no longer continued to support rappers who presented women as hypersexual objects. Students representatives claimed this attack was not directly aimed at Nelly but they would have rather presented their opposition to the troubling direction into which hip hop was shifting. After hearing the concert would have been boycotted, Nelly canceled his appearance during the event. At the beginning of 2005, the African American womens magazine ESSENCE started a campaign against sexism in rap music. The magazine targeted black women, launched massive critique of the music industry for creating songs and videos that portrayed black women as sex objects. ESSENCE shed light on many instances how the music affected young black girls. The magazine not only expressed its disapproval with the depiction of black women in rap but also requested feedback from readers on ways to challenge it. It also promoted positive hip-hop artists and sponsored public discussions with rap artists. In 2006, Spelman College and ESSENCE magazine joined forces to launch a program Take Back the Music. One of the organized panel sessions hosted scholars as Dr. Tarshia Stanley, assistant professor of English at Spelman; Kevin Powell, author and activist; as well as representatives of the music industry: Michael Lewellen, a vice president of public relations, BET; Brian Leach, a vice president of AR, TVT Records; hip hop artist and actress MC Lyte and the editor of ESSENCE magazine Michaela Angela Davis. The panelists attempted to seek for answers to the questions such as: Where Are We Now? How Did We Get Here? Where Are We Going? The gathering also aimed to examine the visual and lyrical depiction of African American women and the impact that these images had on global community. The main goal was to start a dialog in order to initiate a positive change in hip hop. The discussion was concluded with the statement that producing lyrics and images that counter balance the misogyny could be a step all involved parties could take. The Take Back the Music meeting initiated by ESSENCE inspired discussion on the increasingly popular musical genre at various levels. Soon after the program had been launched more institutions brought up the issue of healing the hip hop from misogyny. In 2006 Berkley College of Music also took the effort and joined the movement encouraging new directions for rap. The school included in its curriculum the class that would be devoted to critical thinking and social impact of black music. The change in the curriculum turned out to be a success as the classes filled up immediately. The college also aimed to provide summer program scholarships to the winners of ESSENCEs hip-hop songwriting contest. Cynthia Gordy, an assistant editor of the magazine, found the contest important as the young college artists are the future of hip hop. The initiative has been also endorsed by a range of the underground artists and organizations as the Boston Hip-Hop Alliance, a group that supports positive hi p-hop artists and community organizations. Although the positive hip hop movement have been successfully ignited the real change still needs to be executed by the big record companies who dictate what is being produced. There are many popular and talented rappers whose lyrics depart from misogynistic messages. Tracy Sharpley-Whiting names a few as: Common, Talib Kweli, Mos Def, Brother Ali, Zion I, Mr. Lif or Lupe Fiasco. These rappers in their songs avoid messages about violence, misogyny or importance of material success. Through their rhyming skills, they would rather call for unity and activism of the black American society. As Sharpley-Whitng rightly claims, what we hear on the radio is not the only hip hop available. These artists do not produce as many records as 50 Cent, or Eminem and that says more about the consumers than it does about the rappers. According to Scherazade Daravulla King, a director of Bostons Project: Think Different a group focused on production of positive hip-hop ESSENCE as a media organization cannot create a movement: The media needs to be connected to grass-roots efforts working to promote positive images and positive messages, and I think thats where its kind of missing the boat. There are still plenty of hip-hop artists that are true to their roots and the history of the genre. We just need to work to amplify those records. Thomas F. DeFrantz, an associate professor of music and theater arts at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, finds the critiques of hip hop as essential. Concurrently, he points out the fact that the music industry is not the only responsible party for passing the negative message through hip-hop.   He claims that there must be something more than just chasing the financial profits as: People love having sex and talking about sex. There were also instances where the program launched by ESSENCE faced less optimistic and tougher audience. Such scenario happened during a heated debate titled Images of Women in Hip Hop at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York in 2005. The panelists included rapper Remy Ma, underground emcee Jean Grae, author and radio personality Karen Hunter, ESSENCE editor Akiba Solomon and DJ Beverly Bond. The program ended up shortly after it had started as panelists and audience members fiercely struggled to articulate their opinions. Over 300 attendees listened nervously to the panelists debated on hip-hops approach toward women before loudly voicing their own ideas. Interestingly, the audience seemed to be equally divided. Younger people would tend to claim that hip-hops depiction of women accurately reflects the behavior of many females, while older attendees, who may have remembered what hip hop used to mean, blamed the contemporary raps content for negative effects on the behav ior of both young men and women. Unfortunately, the panel ended up without mutual consensus, leaving many listeners disappointed. The conclusion drawn from the meeting may be that the community does not ignore the fact that women are being presented in negative light and feel the need to discuss the issue in details. Looking back at the history, the critical approach to hip hop seems to be nothing new. In the beginning, rap was considered by many not a real music but just a noisy behavior. But the criticism rarely came from the youthful audience itself whose identity was defined by this genre like no other. Nowadays hip hop faces an unprecedented backlash. Although the turning point is hard to be clearly identified, after 30 years of growing popularity, rap music is now battling with an alarming sales decline and growing criticism about the cultures negative effect on society. The popular rapper Nas, challenged the condition of rap by giving a thought provoking title to his latest album Hip-Hop is Dead. According to recent statistics, this title may be closer to the truth than ever. Music sales are down in general, but rap sales slid an alarming 21 percent from 2005 to 2006. For the first time in 12 years no rap album was among the top 10 sellers of the year. The author of Hip Hop Generation, Bakari Kitwana says that it is a natural consequence as the members of hip hop generation grow older and are less eager to defend it.. The study conducted by the Black Youth Project in 2006 indicated that a majority of youth thought rap consisted of too many aggressive images. In the same year, a poll of black Americans by The Associated Press and AOL-Black Voices, showed that 50 percent of respondents said hip-hop was a negative force in American society. This radical shift may have been partially caused by the lack of balance and consistency in presented images. The avid listeners may have had enough of the dark side of hip hop. Another point why black community is turning its back on hip hop may be, as noted by Baltimore Sun pop critic Rashod D. Ollison: The music, dances and images in the video are clearly reminiscent of the era when pop culture reduced blacks to caricatures: lazy coons, grinning pickaninnies, sexually super-charged bucks. Howeve r, it is hard to predict whether the dropping sales trend continues in a long run as, according to Ollison, America is sick and loves violence and sex. It may seem that the only instances of hip hop being discussed broadly in the media are its misogynistic, violent lyrics and explicit videos. However, some critics see the positive sides in hip hop. Bakari Kitwana in his book The Hip Hop Generation compares hip hop cultural phenomenon to the civil rights movement and proves its great potential to impact social change. He enumerates great public events that have shown how hip hop can extend its impact beyond popular culture and influence on the politics serving as a strong unifying tool. For instance, in 1997 the rap group The Fugees held a fund and awareness raising concert on behalf of Haitian charity organizations. Another example of how strong hip hop can talk to the minds of young people is the case of Mumia Abu Jamals fight for justice. He was sentenced to death in 1982 for killing a white policeman who engaged in confrontation with Jamals brother. Jamals supporters claimed that the fact he was a former Black Panther made him re ceive an unfair trial. He did not admit to having committed the crime, and claimed he had been set up for his political past. His rally for justice was supported by many rappers. Their songs permeated with critical opinions of penal system and reached the minds of their fans. By giving this example Kitwana argues that rap may serve as an informative tool and influence many young peoples opinions regarding the death penalty and racial inconsistencies of American justice. Nevertheless, hip hop is still more likely to be geared at controversy and money making by the executive moguls and rap artists themselves. Kitwana states that the hip hop generation, comprised of African Americans born in 1965-1984, need a national organization, one that would not only take advantage of the great economic power of the hip-hop industry but also focus on issues of education, employment, injustice and crime. To support this claim, Kitwana, in one of the interviews, underlines the success of Russell Sim mons Hip-Hop Summit Action Network which helped the United Federation of Teachers and the Alliance for Quality Education gather nearly 100,000 people to protest against New York Mayor Mike Bloombergs $358 million cut in education subsidy. The protest was personally supported by hip hop stars such as Sean P. Diddy Combs, Alicia Keys and LL Cool J. The event was not only recognized by the press but also brought about a feasible effect. The demonstration made Mayor Bloomberg restore $298 million to his initial budget proposal. Although the importance of this event is significant, there is still a lot to do for hip hop generation to catch on politics according to Kitwana. He claims that hip hop cultural phenomenon, if wisely led, can surpass the achievements of the civil rights movement. Indeed, the whole hip hop generation stands on the solid foundation grounded by the success of civil rights and Black Power activists. Yet, hip hop seems to be a more active and rebellious way of expres sion. It may become a political movement as its greatest power is the ability to spread the word quickly and influence the masses. It provides the most relevant outlook on the present issues of the inner cities. In the early beginnings it may have been considered just a meaningless noisy trend. However, the past twenty years have revealed how powerful and long-lasting this trend is. Not only has it become acknowledged in the mainstream America but also has had a massive impact at an international level. This phenomenon may provide new black leaders with an access to unparalleled force of economic power and broad audience of followers which hip hop culture has generated. On the other hand, according to Kitwana, the major problem is that the work of black political activists of this generation is still undermined by the celebrity culture. He claims that the synergy of politics and hip hop should not be about rappers becoming political leaders. The rappers can act as a stimulus force a s in case of the Million Man March, where many black men appeared partly because rappers made it fashionable to support black causes. The rappers should not be leaders but their appearance during such events may help to catch the medias attention on important, troubling issues of black society. Kitwana hopes that perhaps then the media will divert the perception of hip hop as being just violent and misogynistic: Poor black people, especially young blacks of this generation, have not had a voice until the emergence of rap. If you can get past pimps and hos, hip-hop conveys the message of poor people not having jobs and having inadequate education . . . but that other message of pimps and hos is overshadowing that. Kitwana admits that there are two sides to hip hop. He is not defending it, nor accusing of being violent or misogynistic. Although he also sees the negative impact of it in terms of anti-black images or glorification of material success, he is more focused on stressing the positive impact of hip hop. He outlines the possibilities this phenomenon can provide to rejuvenate black society. He rightly notes that the music is contradictory but so are the messages the society is exposing its people to. He claims that young people have turned to music and films in order to look for answers on how to be young and black. That is why these media should be used wisely in order to fill the young minds with right answers for their troubling questions. Conclusion Rap is not just music, it is a part of African-American culture.  It has also proven to be a very inspirational phenomenon for young people. Initially it has developed to reflect the real life of the American inner-cities. Along with growing popularity of the beats and rhymes